This is an historic moment! As far as I know, no attempt
has so far been made to summarise every single battle of Alexander the Great. Attempts to do so have so far been confined to his major battles, with little attention given to his "little" battles, some of which were very large.
Of course, I have had to read Arrian fairly quickly to complete this. It is likely that some details or even battles, escpecially minor ones, have been missed out. If you could point out any flaws, especially in the minor battles, I'd be very happy.
So here it is. I will solely use Arrian; perhaps later I will avail myself of other authors; there, too, I will find accounts of battles not found in Arrian. I also confine my summaries to those battles where Alexander was commander-in-chief. Battles such as Chaironeia are not mentioned.
BATTLE OF MOUNT HAIMOS 335 BC
(Arrian 1.1)
I'll bet many of you have never even heard of it! But it was the first battle where Alexander was in supreme command, and is thus historically significant!
Alexander went north shortly after his accession, to crush rebellions by Balkan tribes at the news of his father's assassination. Going north, he advanced to the Shipka Pass near Mount Haimos (ancient name), where rebellious Thracians were gathered in their thousands.
With the Thracians were traders, with wagons. They had placed the wagons in front of their line, in an attempt to blovk off the pass. They also planned to roll the carts at the Macedonian infantry when they advanced, to crush them
Alexander, seeing this possibility, ordered his phalanx to lie under their shields when the wagons came, thus letting them roll over them harmlessly. He placed the Hypaspistes and Somatophylakes behind them, and the archers were placed on the right wing.
The carts came thundering down. Just as Alexander had predicted, they rolled harmlessly over the phalanx, who stood up and advanced. Alexander moved the archers ahead to break up the Thracian charge. He also moved the Somatophylax and Hypaspist units to the left wing. He also moved to the left wing.
The fierce Thracian charge was broken up by the archers as predicted. His phalanx broke up the Thracians even before the Hypaspistes and Somatophylakes could charge! The Thracians fled into the mountains. Only 1500 were killed. Many of their women, children and baggage were captured. The rest of the Thracians disappeared into their mountain habitat!
BATTLE OF THE LYGINOS RIVER 335 BC
(Arrian 1.2)
I'll bet many have never heard of this battle either!
Moving north of Mount Haimos, Alexander reached the Lyginos River. Previously Syrmos, King of the Triballians, a fierce mountain tribe, had moved the women and children to Pinetree Island in the middle of the river. He himself, with renegade Thracians, also hid out on the island.
The Triballian warriors remained on Alexander?ide of the river. They stayed in a forest.
Alexander came upon them, surpising them. They wisely opted to stay in the forest where phalangites and Companion cavalry wouldn?et at them.
Alexander was, however, too smart for them. He formed his phalanx in column, and advanced quickly. His archers and Psiloi were sent ahead to shoot the Triballians and tempt them out. After a few shots, the Triballians charged out, unable to stand being shot without fighting. They charged towards the archers and Psiloi, their right wing slightly ahead of the rest of their forces.
Alexander ordered Philotas to assault this right wing with Northern Macedonian cavalry. Herakleides and Sopolis were sent to attack their left wing, using cavalry from Bottiaia and Amphipolis. He himself led the rest of the cavalry and all the heavy infantry against their centre.
The Triballians could stand the javelins from the cavalry, but when the Pezhetairoi (phalangites) and heavy cavalry began to charge them, the Triballians fled. Trying to escape through the woods to the river, they were cut down. 3000 were killed. But many escaped into the forest. Only 51 Macedonians were killed.
BATTLE OF THE DANUBE RIVER 335 BC
(Arrian 1.4)
The mighty Danube was reached after Alexander had crossed the Lyginos. An army of the Getai (Immortals), a ferocious Thracian people who would one day be called Dacians, was standing across the river. Alexander conceived a pothos (deep longing) to cross the Danube.
He ordered all the tents to be stuffed with straw. He took with him only 5500 men, the rest no doubt keeping the attention of the Getai occupied.
In a devious flanking maneuver, Alexander crossed the Danube. He kept his force concealed behind a tract of land on which the wheat fields stood high. He thus crossed completely hidden, allowing himself time to deploy.
He deployed all his cavalry behind his Pezhetairoi (phalanx). He ordered the Phalanx to hold their pikes obliquely forward as they advanced, thus crushing the tall-standing wheat as they advanced. The sight of this huge phalanx emerging suddenly from the wheatfield, crushing the stalks as they came, must have been terrifying and unexpected.
As soon as they were in the open, behind the Getai, Alexander ordered his Pezhetairoi commander, Nikanor, to advance in close order on an extended front (ie. shallow but compact). He brought the cavalry swiftly on to the right wing from behind the phalanx, charging at the foe.
The Getai were filled with horror at the sight of the large army, which had crossed the greatest river in Europe without even a bridge! Alexander charged once, scattering the Getai without the phalanx.
BATTLE OF THE ERIGON RIVER 335 BC
(Arrian 1.6)
Alexander, moving south, discovered that the Taulantians, an Illyrian people, were under revolt.
Scaring away most of the Taulantian army by sheer intimidation (he ordered his phalanx to wave their pikes slowly in rhythm!), he advanced towards the place where the remainder were, on a small hill, near the place where Alexander wished to cross the Erigon River.
He ordered his Companions and Somatophylakes to advance towards the hill. Upon reaching the hill, half of them were to dismount, to support the cavalry. However, the enemy fled to a slight rise in the ground some distance away, without giving the cavalry time to fight.
Alexander occupied the hill. He decided to go across the Erigon River, but wanted to ensure that the army did it safely. He ordered his heaviest troops, the Hypaspistes, across first, telling them to form up facing the enemy as soon as they crossed. The rest of the troops followed.
The Illyrians charged at the Macedonians, intending to crush them now that they were split up. But Alexander counterchaged, and the Hypaspistes and other infantry recrossed the river to fight back. The Illyrians broke, and retired. Alexander ordered the Agrianians to advance to the river. Midstream, they kept up a steady fire. Alexander crossed with his artillery. Setting it up, he kept a steady fire backwards across the river at the enemy, until all his troops had crossed.
That night, he recrossed te river with the Agrianians, the Psiloi, the Hypaspists and the troops under Perdikkas and Koinos; he had heard that the camp of the Taulantians was poorly defended. Sending forward the Agrianians and Psiloi alone on a narrow front, he massacred the Taulantian Illyrians.
BATTLE OF THEBES 335 BC
(Arrian 1.8)
Alexander advanced to Thebes, where he heard that the Thebans were revolting against his rule. This was because he had been camapigning so long in the Balkans that many believed he had died!
Thebes was protected by a large double-palisade. Alexander camped nearby.
According to Arrian, the assault was begun by one of his officers, Perdikkas, without orders. Perdikkas made a sudden assault at one section of the palisade, breaking through and fighting the Thebans. Amyntas followed with his troops.
Alexander allegedly wished to prevent the two officers from being badly defeated, so he ordered a general advance. He sent in the Agrianians and Psiloi through the breach, keeping the Somatophylakes and Hypaspistes outside.
Trying to break into the second palisade, Perdikkas was badly wounded. His men, meanwhile, forced the Thebans into a valley-road by the Temple of Herakles. There the Thebans countercharged, killing seventy Psiloi and their commander Eurybotas the Cretan. The rest fled back to Alexander and his Hypaspists, deployed outside.
Alexander led a general infantry charge at the pursuing enemy. They routed into the city so quickly that they didn?other to shut the gates! Fighting for a while in the middle of the Ampheon, the Theban infantry and cavalry broke for a second time, fleeing where they could. Arrian blames Alexander?llies for the terrible massacre that followed.
BATTLE OF THE GRANIKOS 334 BC
(Arrian 1.14)
Alexander suddenly decided to conquer the world. His soldiers were delighted.
He advanced upon the Granikos River, his infantry in two groups, protected on both wings by cavalry. His baggage train followed in the rear.
The Prodromoi and 500 Psiloi were sent ahead under Hegelochos. They reported that the Persians had massed at the Granikos. Alexander prepared for an engagement.
Parmenion commanded the left wing. He moved over to the right, which was under the sub-command of Philotas. On the right were the Companions (Hetairoi), the Psiloi and the Agrianians. Amyntas commanded the Prodromoi, the Paeonians, and Sokrates' squadron (?). To the left of all these were the Hypaspists, commanded by Nikanor; then the Pezhetairoi units under Perdikkas, Koinos, Amyntas son of Andromenes, and then some troops commanded by Amyntas?n Philip.
To the left again were the Thessalian Cavalry under Kalas, supported by the Allied Cavalry, and the Thracians. To their right was the Pezhetairoi units of Krateros, Meleager and Philip, the centre of the army.
Across the river, the Persians had deployed their cavalry right against the river bank, massing their cavalry at the left wing, where Alexander was. Behind them were the Greek mercenary infantry, on a slight rise in the ground.
Alexander leapt on his horse, surrounded by the Somatophylax. He ordered Amyntas, commander of the right wing, to advance into the river with the Prodromoi, the Paionians and one infantry unit, preceded by Sokrates?valry. Finally, with trumpets blaring, he charged into the river himself. He charged obliquely to the current of the river, to prevent an outflanking as he exited the river. Amyntas and Sokrates were met with stubborn Persian resistance. Nearly forced back into the river, these troops managed to drive back the enemy. Alexander then arrived at the other side, making for where the Persian cavalry had massed on their left wing. The Macedonian xyston soon showed itself superior to the Persian cavalry spear. The Persians broke, and Alexander prevented his men from pursuing because he wished to kill the Greek mercenaries. Surounding them with both infantry and cavalry, he massacred all but 2000 of them.
FIRST BATTLE OF HALIKARNASSOS 334 BC
(Arrian 1.20)
Alexander besieged Halikarnassos, with both siege towers and artillery. A party of Halikarnassans came out to set fire to the siege equipment, but they were driven back by the Macedonians on guard duty, who were swiftly joined by some veterans. About 170 Halikarnassans were killed, and the rest driven back into the town.
SECOND BATTLE OF HALIKARNASSOS 334 BC
(Arrian 1.21)
That night two Macedonian soldiers got drunk, and decided to capture the city alone. They charged at Halikarnassos, killing many Halikarnassians who came charging out! Perdikkas' men countercharged and drove the Halikarnassians back into the city, saving the drunk soldiers.
THIRD BATTLE OF HALIKARNASSOS 334 BC
(Arrian 1.22)
Alexander assaulted Halikarnassos again. A small party came out again to burn his siege engines; but they were driven back.
FOURTH BATTLE OF HALIKARNASSOS 334 BC
(Arrian 1.22)
The deperate Halikarnassians made a double-sally, one from the breach in the wall, another from Tripylum Gate. They tried again to burn the siege engines, but failed. Alexander himself made a strong counterattack at the breach, while the artillery kept up a constant shower of missiles. Javelins were also thrown. With difficulty the sally from the breach was driven back with heavy Hallikarnassian casualties.
The sally from the Tripylum was repulsed by the Somatophylax, the troops under Addaeus and Timander, and some Psiloi.
In all, Alexander lost only 40 men, Halikarnassos about 1000.
BATTLE OF TELMISSOS 334 BC
(Arrian 1.28)
The Telmissians, a Pisidian people, defended a narrow pass near their city. Alexander managed to intimidate most of them into leaving; Alexander sent forward light infantry and archers to drive the rest off.
BATTLE OF SAGLASSOS 334 BC
(Arrian 1.28)
The Saglassians, another Pisidian people, defended an area of high ground before their town.
Alexander placed the Hypaspists on his right wing, preceded by the Agrianians and other archers. In the centre he placed the Pezhetairoi (Phalanx). On the left he placed the Thracian Peltasts under Sitalkes. He used no cavalry as the hill was so steep.
Climbing the hill, they were attacked by Saglassians on both wings. The Psiloi on the right wing were driven back, but the Agrianians stood firm. The Macedonian phalanx made contact with the Saglassians, engaged them, and drove them away. About 500 were killed; the rest mainly got away in the hilly countryside. About 20 Macedonians were killed, along with the Psiloi commander Kleandros.
BATTLE OF ISSOS 333 BC
(Arrian 2.8)
Alexander advanced, taking advantage of the fact that the battle would be fought in a narrow area between the Amanos Mountains and the Mediterranean, where his weakness in numbers could be avoided.
The three Hypaspist units were sent to the right wing under Nikanor, right up against the mountains. Koinos and Perdikkas were on their left respectively.
On the left wing, orders were given to avoid leaving a gap between themselves and the sea, to avoid being outflanked.
Darius placed 30,000 mercenary hoplites in the centre, flanked by 40,000 Kardakes, which were Persian peltasts. To the left was another division of 20,000, which actually outflanked Alexander?ine, as they went up into the mountains. He sent his cavalry to the right wing, after using them to shield his deployment.
Alexander then decided to place the Companions on the right wing, under his command. The Peloponnesian infantry and Thessalian cavalry troops were set to the left wing. The Prodromoi and Paionians were also sent to the left.
Seeing the troops curving around his flank in the mountains, Alexander sent out a small group of Agrianians to drive them off, which they did. A few mounted mercenaries were also placed on the right wing.
Alexander advanced. Darius had made some sort of fence along the river, which was said to show his defensive-mindedness. Certainly he didn?other to advance. Alexander rode back and forth during the advance, exhorting the troops. They advanced very slowly, to give the impression that time was on their side. Alexander noted that the Persian left wing was preceded by archers; therefore he charged rapidly once within bow range, to close the distance. He crushed the archers, scattering them to their rear. In the centre, there were problems among the Pezhetairoi who were trying to keep up while crossing the river; the Greek Hoplites opposing them charged, and a ruthless struggle took place.
Meanwhile, Alexander, having crushed the Persian left wing, turned left and charged the Persian centre. The Hoplites in the centre then broke, charge from both front and left.
The Persian cavalry on the right wing charged into the river; but they routed soon, after being delayed by the Thessalians. The Persian army fled.
THE BATTLE OF GAUGAMELA 331 BC
(Arrian 3.10ff)
Alexander advanced towards Darius' army, which allegedly numbered over 1,000,000!
Alexander drew up his line with the phalanx in the centre, Thessalian cavalry on the left wing, Companions and light cav on the right wing, along with himself!
The phalanx, being grossly outnumbered, was deployed unusually. It was deployed in two lines in case of a rear attack, with both wings carefully guarded by light and medium infantry thrown back at an angle, forming a sort of loose square.
Seeing that Darius' line was mainly cavalry, and that he was planning to use scythed chariots as suicide weapons against his phalanx, and seeing a patch of rough ground on the enemy left wing, Alexander decided to draw the enemy?ttention to the rough ground. Advancing obliquely, his phalanx echeloned back as it advanced, Alexander charged sideways, to the right. His light cavalry went even further to the right while his Companions paused.
Darius, panicked at the thought that he was to be drawn onto rough ground, released his scythed chariots. The phalanx of Alexander had been ordered to open ranks if this happened, and this they did. The chariots passed through harmlessly, and were despatched by the Royal Pages.
Alexander's light cavalry frightened Darius, who didn?ant to be outflanked. Darius sent more and more of his own cavalry to the left to contain the Macedonian light cavalry.
Soon, a gap opened in Darius' line as more and more cavalry was sent left. Alexander charged with his Companion cavalry, rushing into the gap swiftly and causing Darius to flee. Many Persians were killed.
Meanwhile on Alexander's left, a large number of Persian cavalry advanced towards Parmenion's Thessalians. Parmenion appealed for help to Alexander, who returned to the left wing. However, by the time he got there, the Persians were in full rout. The Great King had been defeated again!
BATTLE OF THE TANAIS 329 BC
(Arrian 4.4)
After capturing many Sogdian towns, Alexander found himself faced with Asian Skythians, who declared their hostility. They were on the opposite side of the Tanais (or Jaxartes) River.
Alexander saw that the Skythians' light cavalry would be a tough foe. He first set up his artillery and shot at the Skythians. One was killed, and the others, astounded at these machines, withdrew lightly from the river bank.
Alexander ordered the army to cross. First the archers and Psiloi were shipped across on skins, and they were ordered to shoot at the enemy while everyone else was crossing. Everyone crossed safely.
Alexander led the Allied Cavalry and four squadrons of Prodromoi to the attack. The Skythians surrounded them and began shooting them. Alexander then ordered a mixed force of archers and psiloi to advance and shoot. Three regiments of the Companions and all the mounted javelinmen then charged the Skythians. Alexander himself advanced with the rest of the cavalry. About 1000 Skythians were killed; the rest fled.
BATTLE OF ARIGAION 327 BC
(Arrian 4.25)
Alexander captured the burnt-out Indian city of Arigaion (Nawagai) and began to fortify it. He ordered Ptolemy to forage ahead. Ptolemy came back and reported a large number of campfires in the distance, outnumbering the Macedonians.
Alexander was sceptical, thinking it was only a ruse. He advanced with a small detachment which was in three sections. The first, consisting of several Pezhetairoi, was under the command of Leonnatos; the second, consisting of two Pezhetairoi units, one third of the Hypaspistes, two units of Argianian archers, and half the cavalry was under Ptolemy; and the third was under his personal command.
They advanced to where the Indians were gathered in their thousands on an area of high ground. Alexander?wn command headed towards the place where the Indians were concentrated most.
Contemptuous of the Macedonians, the Indians advanced off their high ground, and came to fight them. While Alexander easily drove off the Indians who came to fight his own command, Ptolemy charged forward and surrounded one section of the Indian army while it was still on the hill! He cunningly left a gap in the ring (a la Sun Tzu!) to allow the enemy some avenue of escape and hence make them weaker. It was a very hard struggle, with the Indians being surprisingly good warriors.
Leonnatos' division was also successful.
The total number of prisoners was a huge 40,000. More than 230,000 oxen were captured!
BATTLE OF MASSAGA 327 BC
(Arrian 4.26)
Alexander advanced towards the Indian city of Massaga. Not wishing the Indians deploying in front of the city to have an easy escape into the town, he cunningly decided to draw the Indians away from the town. He therefore ordered his army to withdraw to a hill less than a mile away. The Indians poured forward, delighted that he was retreating.
Alexander quickly turned around. He formed up his phalanx; then he ordered the Mounted Javelinmen and Agrianians to advance. They engaged the Indians while Alexander came up with the phalanx.
The Indians broke, and routed into the town. 200 were killed.
BATTLE OF BAZIRA 327 BC
(Arrian 4.28)
Alexander was diverted from the town of Bazira. The Indians, thinking that he was retreating, charged out of Bazira. 500 were killed in a swift fight.
BATTLE OF THE ROCK OF AORNOS 327 BC
(Arrian 4.30)
After capturing Aornos (Pir-Sar), Alexander led forward 700 Hypaspistes and Somatophylakes. At a given signal, they charged forward and massacred the Indians on the rock.
FIRST BATTLE OF THE HYDASPES RIVER 326 BC
(Arrian 5.14ff)
Alexander crossed the Hydaspes River by means of a trick.
He marshalled his troops quickly.
His own cavalry and the best mounted troops were placed on the right wing. To their left were placed the mounted archers. Behind the cavalry he placed all the infantry (they were Hypaspistes). To the left and right of the infantry he placed the Agrianian archers, and Psiloi. He advanced.
Poros' son advanced along the river to meet him. He was commanding 2000 cavalry and 120 chariots. At first Alexander thought this was the full army, and sent forward only the mounted archers; but when he discovered the truth, he attacked with all his cavalry. The Indians lost 400 mounted men.
SECOND BATTLE OF THE HYDASPES RIVER 326 BC
(Arrian 5.17ff)
Poros was filled with alarm. His son had been defeated and killed, and Alexander had somehow crossed. Yet across the river, Krateros was waiting with a large detachment of cavalry, and would cross into Poros' rear if he advanced. Poros decided to leave a small number of elephants to guard Krateros, and advanced with the rest to meet Alexander. He had 300 chariots, 4000 cavalry, 200 elephants, and 30,000 infantry.
King Poros deployed as follows: He deployed his elephants in the front, at intervals of 100 feet. Behind the elephants were placed the infantry, in a shorter line than the line of elephants; they were stationed in the intervals between the elephants, to prevent a breakthrough.
He placed infantry on both wings of the elephants, too. On both wings of the army, the left touching the river, were the cavalry units, each division screened by chariots.
Alexander noted the elephants. He stopped, allowing the infantry to catch up. He paused his infantry too, when they arrived, to give them rest before the struggle. While they rested, he screened the infantry with cavalry, maneuvering back and forth. Most of the cavalry he then massed against the Indian left, against the river. He placed the cavalry of Koinos, Demetrios and himself on the left wing, facing the Indian right. He himself, however, stayed on the right wing of the army.
He ordered Koinos and Demetrios to do the following maneuver: when the Indians decided to move the mounted troops from their right wing over to their left, Koinos and Demetrios should catch them in the rear.
The infantry was commanded by Seleukos, Antigenes and Tauron. They were ordered not to engage until both the Indian infantry and cavalry were in confusion.
Alexander then launched his mounted archers against the enemy left wing. Because the Indian cavalry was still in column formation, Alexander charged immediately thereafter, with all his Companions.
As predicted, the Indians moved all their cavalry from their right wing to their left. Koinos and his cavalry charged their rear, as ordered. The Indian right-wing cavalry, caught on their way to their left wing, split into two groups, one against Koinos, the other against Alexander.
Alexander, seeing this, led a charge against the Indian cavalry. Surrounded, they fell back on their elephant-line. The elephants advanced towards the cavalry. The Macedonian infantry advanced and engaged the elephants before they could meet the Macedonian cavalry.
The elephants were attacked in a lengthy struggle with the phalanx and archers.
The Macedonian cavalry, now in one large group on their right wing, were charged by the Indian cavalry. But the Indians were again repulsed, falling back on their elephants again.
The elephants were by then in a panic, trampling anyone in their way. Boxed in, they fled where they could. When they had tired, Alexander surrounded the whole Indian army with the cavalry, and the infantry were ordered to lock shields and advance on the Indians. Krateros, seeing the events, crossed the river and attacked those Indians whole routed.
20,000 Indian infantry were killed, 3000 cavalry, and all their chariots.
Alexander had lost 80 infantry (out of 6000), ten mounted archers, twenty Companions and 200 other cavalry.
FIRST BATTLE OF SANGALA 326 BC
(Arrian 5.23)
The Katheiai, an Indian tribe, set up a defensive position near the town of Sangala. They were supported by troops from other tribes.
The defensive position was a hill, which was less steep in some places than others. Around the hill were placed three concentric wagon laagers, to prevent Alexander climbing the hill.
Alexander decided to use different tactics. He ordered the mounted archers to shoot at long range against the enemy front, to prevent them from charging out effectively before he could deploy.
Kleitos and the "Special Cavalry" (??) were placed on the right wing. The Hypaspistes and Agrianians formed the centre of the line. On the left were placed the Pezhetairoi and Perdikkas' cavalry. The Psiloi were placed in two units, on the extreme right and left. He added more infantry and cavalry to the aforementioned, when the rest of his army began to arrive.
Alexander took command of the right, as usual. Charging, he advanced against a section of the wagon laager that was less well-constructed, on a section of the hill that was shallow.
But the Indians, armed with longbows, gave Alexander pause when they began firing. He sensibly decided to dismount, went over to the infantry, and advanced with them instead. The enemy was driven from the first ring of defenses, but retired to the second ring, which was smaller, and thus allowed them to have closer order. But the Macedonian infantry, struggling over the first laager, managed to force the Indians away from the second laager too. Disheartened, the Indians routed, not bothering with the third ring of wagons. They retreated into the town.
SECOND BATTLE OF SANGALA 326 BC
(Arrian 5.23)
The Indians were surrounded in their town. At one point in the wall, there was a lake which was shallow. Alexander guessed correctly that they would try to escape via this lake. Many were killed at night, ambushed near the lake.
THIRD BATTLE OF SANGALA 326 BC
(Arrian 5.24)
Alexander surrounded the city with a double-barrier, except at the lake. Hearing that the Indians planned to break out again at the lake, he ordered Ptolemy to guard there with three units of Hypaspistes, the Agrianians and the Psiloi. He ordered Ptolemy to sound the alarm when the Indians began to cross the lake, and the rest of the officers would come and help.
Ptolemy had a cunning plan. Collecting all the carts from the wagon laagers nearby, he set them up across the Indians' line of escape, to delay them as they tried to flee at night. He also built a barrier between the lake and the town, on both sides, to prevent the Indians slipping out between the city and the lake.
The Indians that night were beset upon by Ptolemy as they tried to flee over the lake. Ptolemy killed about 500.
(c) Copyright Jonathan Lim 2000
You may print this piece of writing out if you wish.
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